Therefore, this particular finding must be interpreted with caution. It is possible that gender differences in Flanker performance are not as robust as gender differences in functional connectivity. Indeed, this may be the case given that the current sample was generally healthy, and gender differences in cognitive control performance are not commonly found in healthy youth despite gender differences in brain activation Weiss et al.
Functional connectivity, specifically during resting states, is generally considered a relatively stable measure Braun et al. However, recent work demonstrates that there is an appreciable difference in network functional connectivity between task and resting states, such that task-dependent functional connectivity effects explain as much or more of the variance in inter-individual connectivity than resting state effects Geerligs et al.
Moreover, differences in functional connectivity between individuals are not static, but greatly depend on the mental state during which these measurements are obtained. The results of the present study support this assertion by demonstrating that gender differences in functional connectivity occurred across task conditions. There are a variety of analytic approaches used to measure task-related functional connectivity, including removal of linear task effects with regression Fair et al.
Linear regression of task effects is not restricted by the experimental design as long as task effects are effectively modeled and removed. Indeed, previous work has shown that this approach may not remove all task-related signal Fair et al.
Even so, the possibility that nonlinear task effects remain and alter correlation coefficients cannot be ruled out.
Healthy male and female adolescents demonstrated a differential impact of SRP on cognitive control task performance that was paralleled by DMN-FPN functional connectivity. Importantly, gender differences in this pattern of connectivity were absent in Control conditions, indicating that these effects were due to the SRP induction. Importantly, co-rumination, which was endorsed to a larger degree by girls than boys, mediated the effect of gender on SRP Incongruent Flanker omissions.
Thus, placing internal i. Engaging in co-rumination may be one mechanism through which cognitive control performance declines in situations where adolescents must regulate internal vs.
Future studies must determine the relevance of this mechanism for predicting depression using similar experimental paradigms longitudinally and with adolescents who are at risk for MDD. The raw data supporting the conclusions of this manuscript will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation, to any qualified researcher. GA conceived the study and was involved in data collection, analysis and interpretation, as well as drafting the article.
JP, DF and BN contributed to the design of the study, data interpretation and critical revision of the article. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript to be published.
Funding sources had no involvement in study design, data collection, analysis and interpretation, writing of this manuscript or the decision to submit this manuscript for publication.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Erika E. Forbes is thanked for her thoughtful feedback on revisions of this manuscript. Eric Earl is thanked for his assistance with technical support with data processing and analysis.
Special thanks to Kristina Hernandez and Hannah Scheuer for their help with participant scheduling and data management. Sex differences in the neural substrates of spatial working memory during adolescence are not mediated by endogenous testosterone. Brain Res. Developmental sex differences in resting state functional connectivity of amygdala sub-regions.
Neuroimage , — Alexander, G. Arfanakis, K. Combining independent component analysis and correlation analysis to probe interregional connectivity in fMRI task activation datasets.
Imaging 18, — Bartova, L. Reduced default mode network suppression during a working memory task in remitted major depression. Baur, V. Resting-state functional and structural connectivity within an insula-amygdala route specifically index state and trait anxiety.
Psychiatry 73, 85— Benjamini, Y. Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Google Scholar. Berzonsky, M. The Blackwell Handbook of Adolescence. Oxford: Blackwell. Braun, U. Test-retest reliability of resting-state connectivity network characteristics using fMRI and graph theoretical measures.
Neuroimage 59, — Bunge, S. Immature frontal lobe contributions to cognitive control in children: evidence from fMRI. Neuron 33, — Calhoun, V. Modulation of temporally coherent brain networks estimated using ICA at rest and during cognitive tasks.
Brain Mapp. Carew, C. Neural systems underlying thought suppression in young women with and at-risk, for depression. Carlo, G. The development of a measure of prosocial behaviors for late adolescents. Youth Adolesc. Carrington, S. Are there theory of mind regions in the brain?
A review of the neuroimaging literature. Casey, B. Dissociation of response conflict, attentional selection and expectancy with functional magnetic resonance imaging. U S A 97, — Cavanna, A. The precuneus: a review of its functional anatomy and behavioural correlates. Brain , — Chen, B. Individual variability and test-retest reliability revealed by ten repeated resting-state brain scans over one month.
PLoS One e Chen, Y. Evidence for implicit self-positivity bias: an event-related brain potential study. Chou, Y. Investigation of long-term reproducibility of intrinsic connectivity network mapping: a resting-state fMRI study.
AJNR Am. Christakou, A. Sex-dependent age modulation of frontostriatal and temporo-parietal activation during cognitive control. Neuroimage 48, — Cohen, A. Defining functional areas in individual human brains using resting functional connectivity MRI. Neuroimage 41, 45— Cole, M. Intrinsic and task-evoked network architectures of the human brain. Neuron 83, — The cognitive control network: integrated cortical regions with dissociable functions. Neuroimage 37, — Coleman, J. The Nature of Adolescence.
Cox, R. AFNI: software for analysis and visualization of functional magnetic resonance neuroimages. Cservenka, A.
The effects of age, sex, and hormones on emotional conflict-related brain response during adolescence. Brain Cogn. De Luca, M. Neuroimage 29, — Dosenbach, N. A dual-networks architecture of top-down control. Trends Cogn. Du, H. Test-retest reliability of graph metrics in high-resolution functional connectomics: a resting-state functional MRI study. CNS Neurosci. Eriksen, B. Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target letter in a nonsearch task.
Fair, D. Distinct neural signatures detected for ADHD subtypes after controlling for micro-movements in resting state functional connectivity MRI data.
Neuroimage 35, — Fan, J. Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Fox, M. The human brain is intrinsically organized into dynamic, anticorrelated functional networks. U S A , — Coherent spontaneous activity accounts for trial-to-trial variability in human evoked brain responses.
Franco, A. Impact of analysis methods on the reproducibility and reliability of resting-state networks. Brain Connect. Other studies reported that girls were more affected than boys by the intervention. For example, in Bird et al. Among the girls, there were improvements in body satisfaction, and reductions in body-satisfaction and appearance-related conversations, appearance-related and restrained eating, and emotional eating.
In addition, there were improvements in knowledge of the intervention topic. In contrast, boys reported significantly lower levels of internalization of cultural appearance ideals and appearance-related conversations. Other studies also reported that in mixed-gender groups, girls are more influenced by the intervention than boys [69,70].
Some studies found no significant effect of gender on changes in self-esteem or body image in a school-based program delivered to 5 th - and 6 th - graders [66,67]. Mixed effects of gender on program results have also been reported in uni-gender interventions. In a school-based body-image intervention delivered in three minute sessions to young adolescent girls 90 girls were in the control group in the 7 th grade, a significant positive outcome was reported in the intervention group relative to the control group on the subjects of knowledge, risk factors for body dissatisfaction, body image, dietary restraint and self-esteem, post-intervention and at a 3-month follow-up [71].
In another study, performed in four weekly health class periods with adolescents aged Girls reported decreased body dissatisfaction, decreased physical appearance comparisons, and increased appearance satisfaction, relative to controls [72]. A similar impact was reported by Ross et al. Nevertheless, in another study performed by the same researcher, five sessions of a prevention program for body-image concerns that focused on self-esteem and peer relationships were delivered to adolescent boys between the ages of 11 and15 years.
No differences were found between the intervention and the control group post-intervention or at any of the follow-ups [75]. Intervention programs are an effective way of promoting positive body image and self-esteem in adolescents.
However, there are differences between the genders in the influence of these programs. In addition, different effects are found for uni-gender vs. The present review looks at gender differences among adolescents and their impact on self-esteem and body image, as well as the influence of prevention programs on adolescents' self-esteem and body image when presented to mixed-gender vs.
Overall, the findings revealed that gender differences start at a very young age, and due to differences in gender roles and physical development, impact adolescents' body image and self-esteem differently between genders [31]. Physical development for boys, contrary to girls, is usually a positive experience. Therefore, more boys are satisfied with their bodies than girls. Nonetheless, today we are seeing more boys who aspire to have a lean and muscular body and to be closer to the "athletic body ideal" [55].
Body mass emerged as a potent predictor of body dissatisfaction. Therefore, body mass can explain the differences in body dissatisfaction between the genders. The differences in gender tendencies can be attributed to differences in the age of the examined participants, weight status and differences in socioeconomic backgrounds as well as different intensities of exposure to media messages. We assume that since boys have late physical development, internalization of the muscular-body ideal comes later in life [76].
The reviewed studies presented mixed results on gender differences with respect to the impact of intervention programs to promote self-esteem and positive body image, in both mixed-gender and uni-gender programs. Since risky behavior among youth is linked with other behaviors, further effort is warranted to develop interventions that are successful among both genders, focusing on gender differences in the context of physical development and societal influences.
To the best of our knowledge, there are no comparative reports of the same program delivered to mixed-vs. Uni-gender groups boys only, girls only and mixed groups. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and build upon your work non-commercially. Withdrawal Guidlines. Publication Ethics. Withdrawal Policies Publication Ethics. Home JPCPY Gender differences in respect to self esteem and body image as well as response to adolescentsrsquo school based prevention programs.
Journal of. Review Article Volume 2 Issue 5. Go to Gender differences in youths' dangerous behavior Adolescence is universally viewed as a challenging period during which youth shave to deal with a range of different concerns related to the demands of the transition from childhood to young adulthood.
Gender differences in prevention program outcomes single vs. Skip to main content Skip to footer. Close Search Submit. Upcoming Events. Learning Center. Search Submit. Resource Are there any differences in the development of boys' and girls' brains? Read more about: Brain Development. Back to top. We investigated gender differences in baseline trust i. Based on the previously discussed literature in adults and older adolescents, we hypothesized gender differences in baseline trust, with higher trust in males than in females.
Additionally, we explored the association between age and first investment i. Over a larger age range increases of baseline trust have been reported Fett et al. Furthermore, based on the literature and our previous study, we hypothesized that males and females would show similar investments during cooperative interactions, but that males would show more reduction of investments during unfair interactions than females. In addition, we expected that with age, trust would increase during cooperative interactions, and decrease during unfair interactions, and that gender differences would become more pronounced.
At the neural level we tested gender differences and associations with age in nine predefined regions of interest ROI , associated with mentalizing, reward, cognitive control, and conflict processing.
Finally, we explored in the ROIs whether gender and age effects differed between cooperative and unfair interactions. A subset of 24 males and 20 females also participated in fMRI. Part of the larger sample was previously described as the healthy comparison group for an early psychosis sample Fett et al. For participant characteristics of this sub-sample, please see the Supplementary Material Table S1.
Participants were recruited at local schools in London, via colleagues and recruitment circulars at the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience. All participants had a good command of the English language. Participants had no history of neurological disorder, no psychiatric diagnosis, or psychotropic medication.
The vocabulary subtest of the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence WASI was used as indicator of general cognitive ability [13—18 years Wechsler, ], to investigate for possible confounding. T-scores were scaled for age. Participants played the role of investor in two multi-round trust games. They were told that their two anonymous counterparts, the trustees, were connected to them via the Internet. In reality, they played against a computer, with two algorithms programmed to respond always in a cooperative and always in an unfair way.
The two games were presented in counterbalanced order. Each game consisted of 20 experimental and 20 control trials. The invested money was tripled and the trustee i. Control trials were included as baseline condition for the fMRI analysis. The design and duration of the control trials were equal to the experimental trials, but without the element of investment. In the control trials participants had to move the cursor to a number between 0 and 10, which was indicated by a red arrow.
Every trial started with an investment cue 2 s , followed by the investment period where participants made their choice 4 s, regardless of reaction times ; the invested amount was shown 2 s , followed by a waiting period jittered, 2—4 s , and a fixation cross ms. Finally, the returned amount 3 s and the final totals of both players jittered, 2.
Every trial lasted For a graphical representation of the set-up of the trust game, see Figure 1. After the trust game, participants completed a short questionnaire that asked if at some point they had doubts that their counterpart was a real person outcome represented in Table 1.
About one third of the participants reported doubts. Therefore we report sensitivity analyses, comparing results of the participants with and without doubts. Additionally, all analyses were run including only participants without doubts that the trustee was real. Figure 1. Graphical overview of the trust game.
Note: Top row represents the visual stimuli in the game trials; middle row are the separate phases including durations of the trust game; bottom row represents the visual stimuli in the control trials. Taken with permission from Lemmers-Jansen et al.
Other measures were administered, which are unrelated to the current topic. Before scanning participants completed 10 trust game practice rounds on a laptop. Participants were told that they were connected with their game partners via the Internet and that they would receive the earnings from one randomly selected round of the trust game.
During scanning, two different runs of the trust game were administered, one with a cooperative and one with an unfair interaction partner, and structural scans were acquired.
The complete scanning session lasted approximately one hour. After scanning the participants answered a short questionnaire, which examined their individual perceptions of the trust game and their game partners. We analyzed the effect of the condition on the amounts of the investments to check if the participants responded to the differences in response patterns of their interaction partners, with the investment as the dependent variable, using multilevel random regression analyses XTREG , to account for multiple observations [investments level 1 ; within participants level 2 ].
To test our hypotheses regarding changes of trust, we used the same multilevel regression analyses, including gender, age, and trial number, and their interaction as predictors. Trial number indicates the changes over time during the game, the development of trust in response to social feedback. The WASI score was added as covariate, to control for possible confounding of verbal cognitive ability.
Analyses were run separately for the cooperative and unfair condition. Additionally, the effects of gender and age on first investment e. A quadrature birdcage head coil was used for radio frequency transmission and reception. Participants were placed head first in the scanner. Foam padding was placed around the head in the coil to minimize head movement and the participants were provided with ear protectors. The participants looked at the screen through a mirror.
Participants were equipped with a button box in their right hand. One button was used to increase the investment, one to decrease the investment. Data were analyzed with SPM12 1. All images were corrected for head-motion using iterative rigid body realignment with six motion-parameters to minimize the residual sum of squares between the images.
Per subject scans were acquired per condition. At first-level, fMRI time-series data were modeled by a series of events convolved with a canonical hemodynamic response function HRF. The investment phase was modeled as an event lasting from the start of the investment phase until the moment the participant pressed the button to make the investment, or to choose the indicated number in the control condition mean reaction time 3.
The repayment phase was the period during which the response of the trustee was shown, lasting 3 s see Figure 1. Game trials were contrasted with the corresponding phases of the control trials. Six movement parameters were included in the model. Analogous to our previous study Lemmers-Jansen et al. ROIs were defined as a 10 mm sphere around the given coordinates, except for the caudate, where a 5 mm sphere was used.
Analyses were conducted in SPM12, using Marsbar We used an event related, factorial design with gender as contrast and age as covariate. All ROI analyses were conducted separately for the investment and repayment phase, in the cooperative and unfair conditions. Additionally, exploratory whole-brain analyses were performed to examine group wise differences in regions outside the a priori defined ROIs. Participant characteristics are described in Table 1. There were no group differences between males and females in age.
However, WASI vocabulary scores differed significantly between males and females, with males scoring on average 6 points higher than females. There was no significant correlation between WASI scores and investment, suggesting that any gender differences in investment were unlikely influenced by systematic differences in general cognitive ability. One third of the participants indicated doubts in response to the question if they believed they were interacting with a real partner.
Several strategies were used during investments see Table 1 , but these did not differ significantly between genders. The investments in the trust game are shown in Table 1. The effect of condition on investment was investigated as a manipulation check. Results showed significant differences between conditions see Figure 2 , indicating that the task conditions cooperative vs.
Figure 2. Mean investment over trials by gender and condition of the trust game. In the cooperative condition , no gender-by-age-by trial number interaction was found. Figure 3. Age-by-trial number interaction in younger and older adolescents during cooperation. To visualize the effect, a median split for age was performed.
Post hoc analyses with a median split for age showed that younger males decreased their investments more strongly toward the unfair other than older males see Figure 4. Figure 4. Gender-by-age interaction on investments over trials in the unfair condition. ROI analysis revealed gender-by-age interactions in the cooperative investment phase, in the left TPJ and the right caudate see Figure 5.
During the cooperative repayment phase, a gender-by-age interaction was found with a significance level just bordering the threshold adjusted for multiple comparisons in the right TPJ see Figure 5. All areas showed greater increase of activation with age in males compared to females. Main effects of gender, bordering significance, became apparent in the cooperative repayment phase see Table 2 , with males activating the TPJ more, and females activating the caudate more.
There was no main effect of age. Figure 5. During the repayment phase, a gender-by-age interaction was found in the left TPJ, with greater increase of activation with age in females compared to males see Figure 5. There were no significant main effects of gender. In the ACC and dlPFC, a non-significant trend-level effect of age was found, showing increased activation in older participants during investments. This study set out to investigate the development of trust in adolescent boys and girls.
Using two multi-round trust games, we found gender-by-age interactions on investment behavior during unfair interactions, with younger males reacting more strongly to unfair partner feedback.
0コメント